2020수능특강 영어독해연습 1강 본문

 

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1

It will never be possible to establish the origins of human music with any certainty; however, it seems probable that music developed from the prosodic exchanges between mother and infant which foster the bond between them. From this, it became a form of communication between adult human beings. As the capacity for speech and conceptual thought developed, music became less important as a way of conveying information, but retained its significance as a way of communicating feelings and cementing bonds between individuals, especially in group situations. Today, we are so accustomed to considering the response of the individual to music that we are liable to forget that, for most of its history, music has been predominantly a group activity. Music began by serving communal purposes, of which religious ritual and warfare are two examples. It has continued to be used as an accompaniment to collective activities; as an adjunct to social ceremonies and public occasions.

 

2

As much as we want to believe that students learn everything we try to teach, we must admit that we aren’t perfect as teachers. In fact, recognizing our fallibility is said to be one characteristic that separates great teachers of diverse students from those teachers who are just adequate. Recognizing that you can make mistakes as a teacher and constantly strive to recover from those failings is significant. If you use preconcept and postconcept mapping exercises with your students and you discover that some of the gaps appearing at the beginning persisted until the end, then you have a couple of ways of responding. One thought that too many teachers invoke is that the kids were lazy and didn’t care. But for teachers who are able to accept their potential fallibility, the disappointment about the results translates into clearly identified areas for improvement. As odd as this may sound, when you suspect that you have the potential to enhance your teaching, assessment results can help clear up any confusion about where you might begin to make changes.

 

3

Vocabulary knowledge extends beyond the local meaning of a sentence or paragraph; it provides insight into how the text works more broadly. The craft and structure of a text is understood in part by being mindful of the choices the writer makes in word selection. Students are challenged to view the text as a whole in order to understand the perspectives of the writer, as in a historical document, or the concepts related in a scientific article or technical reading. Writers establish mood and tone by the artful selection of words and phrases and link them to rhetorical purposes, especially in history. For instance, consider the use of the word their in the first sentence of the Declaration of Independence: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed, by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” Their, not the. One word subtly shifts the meaning to acknowledge the existence of more than one belief system. Seemingly small word choices can profoundly affect the analysis and interpretation of a reading.

 

4

Ethics itself is not primarily concerned with the description of the moral systems of different societies. That task, which remains on the level of description, is one for anthropology or sociology. In contrast, ethics deals with the justification of moral principles (or with the impossibility of such a justification). Nevertheless, ethics must take note of the variations in moral systems, because it has often been claimed that this variety shows that morality is simply a matter of what is customary and that it thus is always relative to particular societies. According to this view, no moral principle can be valid except in the societies in which it is held. Words such as good and bad just mean, it is claimed, “approved in my society” or “disapproved in my society,” and so to search for an objective, or rationally justifiable, ethics is to search for what is, in fact, an illusion.

 

5

The destructiveness of idealized social media presentation is twofold. When people read the glowing status updates of others, they are likely to feel worse about their own flawed lives, especially if they are the type of people who tend to judge their self-worth in comparison to others. In addition, when people put forth a version of themselves that is not genuine, they can actually feel bad about themselves. In one study, some college students had to pretend to understand made-up words (e.g., besionary) to complete a test, while others did not. Afterward, both groups were praised for their performance. The praise raised the self-esteem of those who did not have to fake understanding of nonwords, but lowered the self-esteem of the students who pretended to understand them. In other words, when people portray their life as better than it actually is on social media, all of the “likes” they get for their status updates and pictures may actually make them feel worse about themselves.

 

6

A quality of the human brain is known as induction, how something positive generates a contrasting negative image in our mind. This is most obvious in our visual system. When we see some color—red or black, for instance—it tends to intensify our perception of the opposite color around us, in this case, green or white. As we look at the red object, we often can see a green halo forming around it. In general, the mind operates by contrasts. We are able to formulate concepts about something by becoming aware of its opposite. The brain is continually dredging up these contrasts. What this means is that whenever we see or imagine something, our minds cannot help but see or imagine the opposite. If we are forbidden by our culture to think a particular thought or entertain a particular desire, that taboo instantly brings to mind the very thing we are forbidden. Every no sparks a corresponding yes. We cannot control this vacillation in the mind between contrasts. This predisposes us to think about and then desire exactly what we do not have.

 

7

The bottlenose dolphin is second only to humans in the ratio of brain size to body size, and dolphins apparently outdo humans in some cooperative games. The discussions of cartels and the prisoner’s dilemma convey the value and difficulty of cooperation among players when there is an incentive to cheat. Individual cartel members undermine cooperative strategies by selling more than they should, hoping nobody will notice. Firms that can’t cooperate on pricing or environmental strategies end up taking actions with inferior outcomes. Dolphins face similar dilemmas. When eating from a school of fish, dolphins encircle the fish and take turns eating, one dolphin at a time. There is an incentive for the circling dolphins to cheat by eating while on duty. However, if a significant number of dolphins followed that incentive, the fish would disperse and the benefits from coordination would be lost. In reality, the trustworthiness of on-duty dolphins prevails to benefit all of dolphin society.

 

8

As my colleague Richard Gregory has argued, illusions like the missing-square pattern reveal that the mind is not lazy. Our minds are actively trying to make sense of the world by thinking of the best explanation. For example, if someone took a handful of coffee beans and scattered them across a table in front of you, you would immediately see patterns. Some beans would instantly cluster together into groups as you simply looked at the array. Have you ever watched the clouds on a summer’s day turn into faces and animals? You can’t stop yourself because your mind has evolved to organize and see structure. The ease with which we see faces in particular has led to the idea that we are inclined to see supernatural characters at the drop of a hat. Each year some bagel, muffin, burnt toast, potato chip, or even ultrasound of a fetus showing the face of some deity is paraded as evidence for divine miracles.

 

9

As the ancient skeptics taught, contentment is possible without the need to cling to comforting beliefs. As proof, we have the example of David Hume, who lived an entirely admirable life without any belief in the supernatural. His personal example shows that nobody need feel gloomy because life has no ultimate purpose, or because conventional conceptions of moral responsibility are built on foundations of sand. So what if our fine feelings and intellectual achievements are just the stretching and turning of so many springs or wheels, or our value systems are mirrored by those of chimpanzees and baboons. Our feelings are no less fine, and our values no less precious because the stories we have traditionally told ourselves about why we hold them turn out to be fables. In discarding the metaphysical baggage with which the human race bolstered its youthful sense of self-importance, Hume taught us that we throw away nothing but a set of intellectual chains.

 

10

The history of science and human invention is full of examples of important advances resulting from synthesizing previously fragmented ideas. One such process began in 1820 when a Dane, H. C. Oersted, discovered that a wire carrying an electric current was surrounded by a magnetic field. In 1825 an Englishman, W. Sturgeon, wound a live wire around an iron bar and created an electromagnet. In 1859 a German pianist and scientist, H. von Helmholtz, discovered he could make piano strings vibrate by singing to them. Later a Frenchman, L. Scott, attached a thin stick to a membrane. When he spoke to the membrane, the other end of the stick would trace a record of his voice sounds on a piece of smoked glass. In 1874 a Scotsman from Canada, working in Cambridge, Massachusetts, put these scattered and diverse elements into one instrument. The instrument was the telephone and the man was Alexander Graham Bell.

 

11

There have been vigorous arguments among biologists about whether complicated goal-directed behaviour among higher mammals is reliable evidence for their consciousness. Indeed the admission of consciousness into animal research is quite a recent phenomenon. Injury-avoidance behaviour is often based on reflexes, and it is not completely obvious that the inner sensation of pain must be attached to it. Even in our own case pain is often felt only after the limb has been moved away. Again, many birds build sophisticated nests entirely instinctively, and may or may not be conscious of what they are doing. At the other end of the animal kingdom octopuses and squid have entirely different brain anatomies from ourselves and our common ancestor probably had no brains at all. Nevertheless they are capable of learning and memorizing facts for months. If they are to be included in the realm of conscious beings, this indicates that consciousness does not depend upon a particular type of brain anatomy.

 

12

The cultural area is where the sky is truly the limit in regard to music. There are countless examples. Music is a wonderful avenue to introduce cultures from around the world. The many recordings depicting the traditional music of each culture are readily available for teachers to add to their collection. Also, musical recordings of the various instruments from countries around the world provide children with an auditory and visual representation of culture. It is important to include an equitable balance of multicultural materials in the classroom to ensure that each child’s heritage is represented and all children are exposed to the heritage of other cultures. Today the holistic classroom method draws and builds upon what the child already knows, engaging the child—since one learns best when passion and interaction are at play—and also addressing the needs of the whole child. Learning begins with the “whole,” progresses through to analysis of the parts, and finishes full circle with the “whole” picture.